The Disappearing Ozone Layer Essay Example for Free

The Disappearing Ozone Layer Essay The Ozone Layer extends from twelve to thirty miles above the surface of the earth. Oxygen in the presence of sunlight forms Ozone. It acts as a barrier to the carcinogenic ultraviolet radiation that is emitted by the Sun (Ozone Layer, 2005). The Ozone molecule consists of three Oxygen atoms. It is unsafe to inhale and most of it is to be found in the stratosphere. It absorbs a particular band of ultraviolet radiation, from the Sun, that has a wavelength between of 280 to 320 nanometers. This ultraviolet radiation known as UV – B causes great harm to the DNA of living organisms (Ozone Depletion , 2006). The Ozone layer is destroyed by the Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs, which were previously used in refrigerants and cleaning agents, and other Ozone Depleting Substances or ODS that, are used in fire extinguishers. The chlorine in the CFCs is released when the Ultraviolet light splits them and these halogen atoms destroy the Ozone by combining with the third Oxygen atom in the Ozone molecule. Subsequently, this molecule combines with a free Oxygen atom to release the halogen atom which again breaks up another Ozone molecule. One halogen atom destroys around a hundred thousand Ozone molecules (Fahey, 2003). The main halogens that cause the depletion of the Ozone Layer are Chlorine and Bromine. Due to exposure to sunlight the halogen source gases are converted into halogen gases that are highly reactive. For instance, chlorine based gases get transformed to ClO or chlorine monoxide and bromine based compounds change to BrO or bromine oxide. In addition, chlorine and bromine atoms are also formed which are highly reactive and cause untold damage to the Ozone Layer (Fahey, 2003). The depletion of the Ozone Layer is not uniform and there is considerable variation with latitude. Due to the extremely high Ozone losses in the Antarctic region the loss is at a global maximum there. The next highest losses transpire in the Northern Hemisphere. The air that has been depleted of Ozone spreads from the Polar Regions. The depletion in the tropical regions is the least because of the fact that reactive halogen gases are present in very small quantities (Fahey, 2003). Further, a seasonal variation has also been noticed in this Ozone Layer depletion process. In the Southern Hemisphere, there is not much of a variation in the process and the amount of depletion is around six percent. However, in the Northern Hemisphere, the variation between winter and summer is from four percent to two percent respectively (Fahey, 2003). Atmospheric Ozone is of three forms the good form, the bad form and the natural form. Good Ozone is the Stratospheric Ozone that protects humans, animals and plants from UV – B radiation. Bad Ozone occurs near the surface of the Earth due to chemical reactions and human activities that produce polluting gases. Industrial activity and the consumption of fossil based fuels cause an increase in bad Ozone (Fahey, 2003). The natural form of Ozone is one of the constituents of a clean atmosphere and if there had been no human activities on the surface of the Earth then Ozone would have been observed at the surface of the Earth and in the troposphere and stratosphere. Ozone extracts other naturally and manmade gases in the atmosphere (Fahey, 2003). Realizing the gravity of the situation, twenty countries became signatories at Vienna to a treaty agreement in 1985. This treaty was named the Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and it was decided to protect the Ozone Layer from the depredations of human activities. Subsequently, the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was ratified in 1989 (Fahey, 2003). This Protocol implemented controls on the developed and developing countries in respect of the manufacture and utilization of chemicals that were instrumental in causing a depletion of the Ozone Layer. These measures were further strengthened by the 1990 London Amendments to the Protocol, which made it mandatory to reduce the production and consumption of such substances. The directives of the Montreal Protocol have proved to be successful to some extent. With increasing depletion of the Ozone Layer the Ultra Violet Radiation reaching the surface of the Earth increases (Fahey, 2003). UV – B radiation causes non – melanoma skin cancer. In the United States of America skin cancer cases are increasing tremendously. The situation is very serious with twenty percent of the residents developing skin cancer. The fatalities from this disease alone are one per hour in the US (Health Effects of Overexposure to the Sun, 2006). Moreover, UVB causes actinic keratoses and premature aging of the skin. Keratoses or lesions occur on the face, upper limbs and neck of individuals. These can lead to squamous cell carcinoma. In addition, UVB brings about a loss in the transparency in the eye lens or what is commonly termed as cataract. Millions of Americans are afflicted by this malaise every year and the expenditure this incurs is of the order of several billion dollars. Further, such radiation causes the degeneration of the macula or that part of the retina where visual perception is at its best. Another grave problem created by such radiation is the impairment of the immune system of the human body (Health Effects of Overexposure to the Sun, 2006). The government of the state of Mississippi being seized with this extremely serious problem posed by UVB radiation has implemented several measures. In this state a large number of air-conditioning and refrigerating units are employed. Some of these refrigerants are Freon 12, Freon 22 and R – 12. By 1995, the production of R – 12 was completely stopped and new substances like HFC – 134A are being used in its place. The government has prohibited the release of Freon into the atmosphere and Freon is being sold only to certified technicians. All air – conditioning and refrigerant equipment has to be thoroughly inspected in order to ensure that the leakage of Freon into the atmosphere is minimized (Moore Kimbrough, 2007). A team of scientists, led by Dr. Yang, of the Georgia Institute of Technology, analyzed data collected over a quarter century. This data had been collected by NASA and NOAA or the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Since, 1979 there had been a drastic depletion of the Ozone Layer. However, in 1997 a reversal in this trend was observed. This was in no small measure due to the proper implementation of the Montreal Protocol. This had prompted Yang and his team to conclude, after extrapolating from the available data, that the Ozone Layer would be restored to its 1980 status by the year 2050 (NASA, NOAA Data Indicate Ozone Layer is Recovering, 2006). However, till such time, it is imperative for people to take abundant precautions. Some of these are the avoidance of the midday sun in summer, protecting the eyes from direct sunlight by wearing sunglasses that filter out Ultra Violet Radiation and eschewing the use of aerosols and CFCs. In addition, liberal use of sunscreen with a sun protection factor or SPF of 15 or more, protective clothing and wide – brimmed hats have to be utilized, especially in the case of children. This is due to the fact that the skin of children is much more sensitive than that of adults. Moreover, every effort should be made to avoid direct sunlight, especially between 10 am to 4 pm.

Social and Medical Disability Models Essay -- Disability

Introduction In this assignment, I aim to provide the reader with an overview of two prominent models of disability: the medical model and the social model. More specifically, I intend to outline the differences between these models, especially their theory and practice. Firstly, I will note the definition of what a model of disability is and point to its relevance in disability studies. I will also briefly examine the origins of both the medical and social models, but mainly outlining the contributions of their respective theoretical content and influence in society. Overall, the main aim of the assignment is to be achieved by providing a general outline of the social and medical disability models, which can be used to highlight the differences in the theoretical basis and practice methods. This will serve the reader with an overview of both disability models, which acknowledges the differences to how disability can be defined and approached in society. Outlining the differences of the medical and social models of disability, giving detail of their respective theory and practice Impairment, disability and the use of models of disability A clear definition of the term disability, it can be widely presumed, has never been universally agreed upon by any lay or in-depth study. This can be due to disability pertaining to different viewpoints; ultimately, the person who experiences the impairment and the person who does not. Another factor can be the norms found in various world cultures (Thomas, 2002). There is also conflicting discussion on the contextual nature of impairment, which is vital to denoting disability. Usually when signifying dysfunction of a bodily organ or appendage, examples of impairment woul... ...dine, M. & Dukelow, F. 2009. Irish Social Policy: A Critical Introduction. Dublin: Gill & Macmillan Hammell, K. 2006. Perspectives on disability & rehabilitation: Contesting Assumptions; Challenging Practice. Philidelphia: Churchill Livingstone McClaren, N. 1998. ‘A Critical Review of the Biopsychosocial Model’, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, Vol 32, No. 1: pp. 86 - 92 Oliver, M. 1990. The Politics of Disablement. London: The MacMillan Press Ltd Oliver, M. 1996. Understanding Disability: From Theory to Practice. Hampshire: Palgrave Royal Association for Disability Rights (RADAR). 2010. Accessed from http://www.radar.org.uk/radarwebsite on the 6th November 2010 Thomas, C. (2002). ‘Disability Theory: Key ideas, Issues and Thinkers’, In: Barnes, C., Barton, L. & Oliver, M. Disability Studies Today. Cambridge: Polity Press. pp: 38 - 57

Report of the Interpretive Simulations

AllSmile Annual Report Years One – Three ————————————————- Bradyn Carson, Clarissa McMickle, Micheal Sullivan, Peiying Li â€Å"Perfect Smile Just a Brush Away† Mission Statement AllSmile’s mission is to provide quality toothpaste globally at a fair and honest price, providing customer service with a smile. Motto â€Å"Perfect Smile Just a Brush Away† ————————————————- Table of Contents To our ShareholdersPage 2 Potential Future Decisions Page 2 Challenges and Decisions in Year Three Page 3 Sales and Earnings Trends Page 4 Industry ComparisonPage 5 Income StatementPage 6 ———————————————— TO OUR SHAREHOLDERS Last year was a big year — we delivered strong results, launched fantastic new products and services, and positioned AllSmile for an incredible future. For fiscal year, we also maintained strong cost discipline resulting in cash flow from operations of $104. 7 million, an increase in manufacturer sales by 23 percent from the prior year. At the beginning of our first year we built a million dollar plant in Brazil. We look forward to all the opportunities this plant will provide for our company such as much lower cost of goods manufactured.We delivered these results by providing new products that help the families in the communities. We look forward to all the great opportunities in the future that our products will bring to Latin American individuals. Potential Future Decisions AllSmile has made an impact in the industry over the past three periods due to our ability to compete in terms of pricing, advertising, production, and distribution. We plan on increasing our competitiveness in the Latin American market by expanding our brand’s products to better serve our product demand and also by looking into new markets to enter.When deciding what new products to implement (if any), we will extensively research demographics, both social and economic, and potential demand for these products. It is very important for us to choose products that produce high margins. We will accomplish this by analyzing our costs associated with producing the products and determining the demand for the product. As far as pricing, AllSmile was able to compete with the large brands during the first three periods. We intend on continuing this, as well as focusing on competing better against local and regional brands in order to increase our total market share in Brazil.As the market matures in Brazil, we may need to enter a new market in order to increase revenues and maintain our strong growth. Some important characteristics we will analyze are: Population, GDP and GDP per capita, inflation, po verty, labor costs, shipping costs, tariffs, as well as other political, social, and economic factors. Since completion of our production plant after period one, our costs of goods manufactured has declined each year. This cost reduction will allow us to allocate more funds to areas that grow our revenue such as: advertising, promotion, and a larger sales force. Challenges and Decisions in Year ThreeOur group chose Brazil as the market to enter. We considered the national population, GPD, per capita income and other factors. Toothpaste is an ordinary and special commodity. It is ordinary, because you can easily find toothpaste everywhere, every household can afford it. It is special, because no matter a men, women, old people or children; both the workers and peasants, or drivers, or white-collar workers, and even national leaders; no matter the richest, the poor, all of them need to use it, it is a necessity product. Brazil's population is the largest in the choice of six countries , and their GDP is the highest, GDP / Capita is low.However, due to the universality of the toothpaste, toothpaste has low prices. It will not be a burden on the economy of the Brazilian family. Therefore, we have chosen Brazil as enter the market. Before the first sales year, we established in Brazil a native plant, which has a capacity of 100 million units. According to Brazil basic social characteristics, and several other major competitors’ product, we decided our product types covered by the child toothpaste for the kids, healthy toothpaste for the elder, white toothpaste for young people, economic toothpaste for family.Our team pricing standards are to ensure that company earnings, guaranteed price competitive enough in the market, and guaranteed consumers can afford the price. The end of the first year, we had 30% of the products left, in view of the traditional market accounted for 40. 5% of the overall toothpaste market, we decided to increase three sales people into traditional sales channels in the next year. Due to the selling of whole market Economy toothpaste are great, we add advertising investment. At the same time, the poor sell of children's toothpaste prompted us to reduce 5 million budgets on its advertising fee.According to the results of marketing, and sales of other companies, appropriate to improve the economy, white, healthy toothpaste price and their allowance, try to stimulate the sales. The end of the second year, we left 16% of the products, the market response is good, so we only slightly increased the economy toothpaste prices, reduce the allowance of white, healthy toothpaste. Given the improved performance, the other company has a large number of sales people, we added two sales people to Traditional channel, ten to the hypermarket channel, five to the wholesale channel, trying to expand the market.On the other hand, due to the increase of 17 sales people, the input is too high, so we decided to reduce the overall invest ment in advertising in the next year. Sales and Earnings Trends AllSmile has started off strong in period one and has maintained that momentum throughout the third period, with expectations of continuing the sales growth. At the end of period one AllSmile unit sales totaled 71. 8 million with a 6. 5% share. Our manufacturer sales totaled 72. 4 million with a 6. 2% share. Gross margins for the first period were 9. 5 million with a -24. 4 million net contribution.Even with negative contributions AllSmile momentum was able to carry us to a positive net contribution by the end of the third period. In the second period, AllSmile gained 12. 1 million in unit sales totaling 83. 9 million with a 7. 5 share. Manufacturer sales gained 17. 8 million totaling 90. 2 million with a 7. 3 share. Gross margins also gained 26. 4 million ending with 35. 9 million, which was a growth of 279. 5%. Net contribution also improved with only -3. 0 million compared to first periods -24. 4 million. Sales growt h continued in the third period as well with even higher numbers.The third period, AllSmile unit sales had a 13. 0% growth totaling 94. 7 million. Manufacturer sales had a 16. 1% growth totaling at 104. 7 million. Gross margins growth was 28. 9% ending at 46. 3 million. Finally net contribution finally ended positive with 10. 0 million. Unit Sales Manufacturer Sales Gross Margins Net Contributions By the end of period three, AllSmile earning trends showed that the Hypermarket channel we entered totaled 85. 2% of sales compared to the Traditional and Wholesale channels. Traditional channels totaled 8. % and Wholesales totaled 6. 0%. Industry Comparison AllSmile has six main competitors in Brazil: Britesmile, Clean+White, Dentacare, Eversmile, Local 1 and Regional 1. At the end of period one AllSmile ranked higher than Clean+White and Eversmile in market shares sales in Brazil. By the third period, AllSmile was competing head to head with Regionals, and Local competitors in market sha res. Period 3 Period 3 Throughout the industry overall, AllSmile is competing with Regional completion in all countries. AllSmile has gross margins of 44. 2%, compared to Regional completion that had 46. 6%.Even though Regional gross margins are slightly greater than ours, it is a great accomplishment for our company to surpass the other completion in our industry. AllSmile is well on our way to being the most competitive industry in the near future. Income Statement| For Periods ended 1, 2 and 3| (Values in Millions of Dollars)| Revenue| Period 3| Period 2| Period 1| Total Revenue|   | $104. 70|   | $90. 20|   | $72. 40 | Mfr. Allowance| 9. 6|   | 9. 1|   | 6. 5|   | Cost of Goods Sold| 47. 8|   | 44. 3|   | 42. 3|   | Shipping and Tariffs| 0. 9|   | 0. 8|   | 14. 1|   | Total COGS|   | 58. 4|   | 54. 2|   | 62. | Gross Margin|   | $46. 3 |   | $35. 9 |   | $9. 50 | |   |   |   |   |   |   | Expenses|   |   |   |   |   |   | Promotion Expense| 7. 6|   | 7. 5|   | 5|   | Advertising Expense| 10. 3|   | 14. 4|   | 13. 1|   | Sales Expense| 1. 7|   | 0. 7|   | 0. 5|   | Administrative Expense| 4|   | 3. 7|   | 2. 7|   | Total Expense|   | 23. 6|   | 26. 3|   | 21. 3| Contribution after Marketing|   | $22. 7 |   | $9. 60|   | ($11. 80)| |   | |   | |   | | Fixed Costs| 2. 4|   | 2. 3|   | 2. 2|   | Plant Deprecation| 10. 3|   | 10. 3|   | 10. 3|   | Total Fixed Costs|   | 12. 7|   | 12. 6|   | 12. 5| Net Income|   | $10. 00 |   | ($3. 00)|   | ($24. 40)|

Thomas Hobbes Leviathan and John Lockes Second Treatise...

Hobbes Leviathan and Lockes Second Treatise of Government Hobbes’ Leviathan and Locke’s Second Treatise of Government comprise critical works in the lexicon of political science theory. Both works expound on the origins and purpose of civil society and government. Hobbes’ and Locke’s writings center on the definition of the â€Å"state of nature† and the best means by which a society develops a systemic format from this beginning. The authors hold opposing views as to how man fits into the state of nature and the means by which a government should be formed and what type of government constitutes the best. This difference arises from different conceptions about human nature and â€Å"the state of nature†, a condition in which the human race†¦show more content†¦Previously, the accumulation of perishable items was unreasonable primarily because of spoilage. The introduction of money, however, permitted perishable items to be exchanged for currency. Thus, money rendered the opportunity for ac cumulating property without the associated risk of resulting waste. The profits of this exercise were invested in the means by which they were generated – the land. It was the land, when mixed with man’s labour offered the means of turning that outcome into money. Since land ownership is a prerequisite to making money and money is a pre-condition to owning land, the two became inexorably linked. In short, the introduction of money led to unlimited accumulation, scarcity and, ultimately, conflict. Although the sufficiency limitation remained intact, there was no longer â€Å"as much and as good† land for everyone and, as a result, a visible disparity between â€Å"owners† and the â€Å"wage makers† appeared and conflict between them arose. Locke commented on the problems inherent in accumulation of property in the state of nature; †¦and though in the state of nature he hath such a right, yet the enjoyment of it is very uncertain, and constantly exposed to the invasion of others: for all being king as much as he, every man his equal and the greater part no strict observers of equity and justice, the enjoyment of the property he has inShow MoreRelatedJohn Locke: Founding Father of Modern Era Liberalism1444 Words   |  6 PagesThomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and John Locke are all great thinkers who were greatly influential in forming philosophies that would affect the future of politics. By analyzing each philosopher’s ideology, we can identify which thinker’s theory reflected modern era liberalism the most. For this paper I will be arguing that, John Locke provides a more compelling framework of modern era liberalism because of his perception of the state of nature, the social contract and the function of governmentRead MoreAnalysis Of Aristotle s The Leviathan Essay1586 Words   |  7 Pages1600s, was Aristotle’s theory ever seriously debated. Thomas Hobbes developed his own theory on what is the state of nature in his novel The Leviathan. This writing sparked interest in philosophers as to what human nature truly is, not just what Aristotle had suggested. Just thirty-eight years later, John Locke anonymously published his writings Two Treatises of Government, suggesting a differing outlook on the state of nature to Hobbes. Through a summarization of each philosopher’s depictionRead MoreJohn Locke And John Stuart Mill s On Liberty Essay1748 Words   |  7 Pagesliberty and the role the individual plays in society and to the state. Whereas, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and John Stuart Mill have developed a more modernized conception of liberty and the role of the individual to the state and society. Plato’s work the Republic, and Aristotle’s works of literature Nicomachean Ethics, and Politics will be contrasted against Thomas Hobbes’ Leviathan, John Locke’s Second Treatise, and John Stuart Mill’s On Liberty. The literature works of the political philosophersRead MoreThe State Of Nature And Government1315 Words   |  6 Pages THE STATE OF NATURE AND GOVERNMENT Chloe Holmeshaw BF190 Dr. Charles Wells October 11, 2015 â€Æ' The State of Nature and Government The State of Nature and governing in â€Å"The State of Nature† are two subject that Hobbes and Locke both discuss in their book. The enlightenment period was a time of Learning, new inventions, new theories, and new government. Two prominent figures that became known during the enlightenment were Thomas Hobbes (1588-1674) and John Locke (1632-1704). These enlightenmentRead MoreThomas Hobbes And John Locke s Theory Of Social Contract Theory1449 Words   |  6 Pagesdifferent perspectives of English philosophers, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. From there, I will introduce Dostoyevsky’s work, Grand Inquisitor, and conduct an analysis of the relationships between the Grand Inquisitor and his subjects as well as Jesus and his followers. Using textual evidence and uncontroversial interpretations of the authors’ works, I will draw parallels between the Grand Inquisitor’s relationship with his subjects to Thomas Hobbes’ vision of social contract theory. Si milarly, IRead MoreJohn Locke And John Stuart Mill s On Liberty Essay1200 Words   |  5 Pagesliberty and the role the individual plays in society and to the state. Whereas, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and John Stuart Mill have developed a more modernized conception of liberty and the role of the individual to the state and society. Plato’s work the Republic, and Aristotle’s works of literature Nicomachean Ethics, and Politics will be contrasted against Thomas Hobbes’ Leviathan, John Locke’s Second Treatise, and John Stuart Mill’s On Liberty. The literature works of the Political PhilosophersRead MoreThomas Hobbes And John Locke911 Words   |  4 Pagestheory, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke established many of the founding ideals that contemporary Liberalism is based on. While the shared many similar positions, there are some key distinctions to be made between the arguments Hobbes and Locke make in Leviathan and Second Treatise of Civil Government , respectively. In this paper I will argue the differences between how each of them viewed the right of the subjects to revolt from the sovereign. Thomas Hobbes published his most famous work, Leviathan, duringRead MoreHobbes vs. Locke2028 Words   |  9 PagesAshlyn Brunk Parson POS 352 October, 2012 Exam 1: Hobbes/Locke 1. Compare and contrast Hobbes and Locke on political power? In answering this question explain Locke’s argument against Hobbes’s understanding of â€Å"paternal† and despotical power. On the discussion of power and social structure, both John Locke and Thomas Hobbes introduce their theories on paternal and despotical power in Second Treatise of Government and Leviathan respectively. Both men believe that social order is constructedRead MoreThomas Hobbes And John Locke On Liberty1502 Words   |  7 PagesIn this essay, the contrasting ideas of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke on liberty will be discussed and critically analyzed. Freedom is the idea of being able to do what one wants to, however, in a society, laws are created to make us all equal. Laws apply to every one of us in a civilized democratic society, which is the common voice that keeps us living together without violating each other’s rights.- Author’s general view.7 Thomas Hobbes primarily expresses the idea of liberty using sovereigntyRead MoreJohn Locke And Thomas Hobbes886 Words   |  4 Pagesdiscuss the differences in political theories expressed by both John Locke and Thomas Hobbes. In, Leviathan, by Thomas Hobbes, and in, The Second Treatise of Government, by John Locke different theories of political legitimacy and definitions of the state of nature are described. The following paragraphs analyze multiple different points that are imperative to understanding these political theories. In the reading, Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes discusses what human existence is in the state of nature and